Biology

On 13 March 2019, Professor Tshifularo performed three middleear transplants using 3D-printed ossicles (the hammer, anvil and stirrup). This procedure is significantly less risky than the use of prostheses and their associated surgical procedures and is hailed as the answer to conductive hearing loss, a middle-ear problem caused by congenital birth defects, infection, trauma or metabolic disease. The surgery further aims to simplify the reconstruction of ossicles during middle-ear procedures and reduce the risks associated with traditional surgery, which include the potential for facial nerve paralysis.

Explore this gallery to experience a day in the life of research scientists in Antarctica. Antarctica's ice mass is enormous, and melting continental ice will have dramatic effects on oceanic flow patterns and global seal levels. Antarctica is also the last “pristine” continent in that it remains largely unaffected by human activity, which is why conservation is imperative.

Researchers at the University of Pretoria (UP) have been working to identify genes that make African women more susceptible to certain forms of breast cancer. However, this is no easy task as very little genomic information is known about African populations.

Breast cancer is the most prevalent cancer among women globally. According to the World Health Organisation, there were more than 2.26 million new cases of breast cancer in women in 2020, with a mortality rate of 685 000 women globally. It is estimated that a woman is diagnosed with breast cancer every 14 seconds somewhere in the world.

Since the end of 2020, about 7.8 million women have been living with breast cancer. In South Africa, it is predicted that about one in 27 women will develop breast cancer in their lifetime.

Cancer is caused by mutations in the genome. Many gene mutations may occur during a person’s life and are therefore not inherited. The latter may be triggered by risk factors such as acute or chronic stress, carcinogens, alcohol consumption, tobacco products, diet, lack of physical activity, environmental pollutants, ultraviolet radiation, reproductive and hormonal factors, occupational exposures, infection-attributable cancers, number of pregnancies, and age.

Developing breast cancer can also be an inherited genetic risk. About 5% to 10% of breast cancer cases are thought to be hereditary. Specific genetic variants (mutations) that women inherit from their parents may affect their probability of developing breast cancer. Having a first- or second-degree relative with breast cancer may double or triple the risk of being diagnosed with breast cancer.

Breast cancer susceptibility genes typically contain specific variants that decrease the ability of a woman’s body to repair damaged DNA. There are two types of variants that play a role in breast cancer. The first type is referred to as a germ line variant that is inherited. When specific germ line variants occur, the body is less likely to repair detrimental mutations that may cause cancer. The second type of variant is called a somatic variant and this takes place when DNA damage occurs during a woman’s lifetime, and is found in the DNA of cancerous cells.  

Germ line variants may increase a woman’s susceptibility to get breast cancer. While variants in several germ line breast cancer susceptibility genes play a role, the most-researched genes are involved in the repair of damaged DNA, and include BRCA1 and BRCA2, followed by PALB2. Examples of other important genes are ATM and TP53.

Detrimental variants in BRCA1 and BRCA2 are responsible for 5% to 10% of inherited breast cancer; however, many breast cancer patients have been shown not to have a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation. Having inherited specific mutations in BRCA1 or BRCA2 (or both) may increase a woman’s risk to up to 72% of developing breast cancer during her lifetime. PALB2 interacts with BRCA2 in DNA repair processes. Literature has shown that women with mutations in PALB2 may experience a 35% likelihood of developing breast cancer by the age of 70. 

They way in which breast cancer is diagnosed has developed significantly over the past few years. Breast cancer is classified as Luminal A, Luminal B, HER2+, triple negative, Claudin-low and Normal-like. In terms of common markers, testing is done for the presence of the progesterone receptor (PR), oestrogen receptor (ER) and for human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) status. The presence of ER and PR implies that they can be treated with receptor-targeted treatment methods, where high HER2 levels typically indicate fast cancer growth, but may be targeted with drugs aimed at HER2.

Cancers without ER and PR and having low HER2 levels are termed triple-negative and are typically more challenging to treat, and require chemotherapy. The type of breast cancer as described above will assist in determining the path to follow in terms of ER-, PR- and HER2-targeted treatments, and the need for precision targeted-therapy, surgery, chemotherapy and radiation. Therefore, unlike many years ago, there is no blanket treatment for breast cancer, but it is individualised according to the type of cancer and the presence of specific gene variants.

An important factor is that most studies to design breast cancer susceptibility tests have been conducted on European and Asian populations, and breast cancer tests have been mainly designed from the latter data.

Only a small number of gene panel tests have been performed for African populations, with Nigerian patients and with patients from Uganda and Cameroon. Recent studies conducted by UP researchers Dewald Eygelaar, Lizette Janse van Rensburg and Fourie Joubert in 2022 investigated 165 South African breast cancer patients from various ethnolinguistic groups and indicated 9% of women with a family history of breast cancer (higher than the other two studies mentioned above). The UP team identified pathogenic/likely pathogenic variants in 13 patients in 10 different genes including BRCA1, BRCA2, PALB2 and others.

Larger-scale cancer susceptibility gene studies are crucial in South Africa and the rest of Africa, and future research should include large whole exome (the protein-coding part of the genome) or genome sequencing studies.

Recently, human genome sequencing has become much more affordable and several studies are taking place in Africa and specifically South Africa. This will inform researchers about the frequency of not only breast cancer susceptibility variants in Africans, but also about variants that influence a wealth of other inheritable conditions.

The complete strategy for the elimination of cancer requires a combination of awareness to address the burden of this disease, prevention strategies, contributing to early detection, promoting health and well-being education, together with the acceleration of science and discovery and progress in technology.

“We do what we do every day because we want to make a difference in someone's life,” Professor Annie Joubert says. “Our life’s journey has been shaped by people suffering from cancer and by family, friends, colleagues, peers, our executive and students, as well as indirectly by every individual who has crossed their paths.”

Early warning signs of breast cancer

According to the American Cancer Society, the most common symptom of breast cancer is a new lump or mass (although most breast lumps are not cancer). A painless hard mass that has irregular edges is more likely to be cancer, but breast cancers can also be soft, round, tender or even painful. These are few things to look out for:

• Swelling of all or part of a breast (even if no lump is felt)

• Skin dimpling (sometimes looks like an orange peel)

• Breast or nipple pain

• Nipple retraction (turning inward)

• Nipple or breast skin that is red, dry, flaking or thickened

• Nipple discharge (other than breast milk)

• Swollen lymph nodes under the arm or near the collar bone 

Click on the infographic in the sidebar to learn more.

University of Pretoria researchers find that the common ancestor of the approximately 100 species of Protea found in South Africa and Australia’s related macadamia nut trees (such as Macadamia integrifolia) and waratah (Telopea speciosissima) dates back to when dinosaurs went extinct.